Resources · Sourcing & integrity

References & figure index

Every Sourced figure on this site links here. Citations are IEEE-numeric. Measured and Calculated values are the author's own — their working is in the Appendix.

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Reference list

  1. Ministry of Sustainable Development, Kingdom of Bahrain, Voluntary National Review 2023. Manama: Government of Bahrain, 2023. [National targets, NREAP/NEEAP, Askar 100 MW, 51.9 MW installed, Economic Vision 2030, water data.]
  2. Lazard, Levelized Cost of Energy+ (LCOE+), June 2024. New York: Lazard, 2024. Available: https://www.lazard.com/research-insights/levelized-cost-of-energyplus/ [Utility-scale solar $61/MWh; combined-cycle gas $76/MWh, unsubsidised.]
  3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), AR5 WG3, Annex III: Technology-specific Cost and Performance Parameters, 2014; summarised in "Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources," Wikipedia. [Gas CCGT median 490 gCO₂eq/kWh; utility solar 48; rooftop solar 41.]
  4. "Effect of Soiling on Solar Photovoltaic Performance under Desert Climatic Conditions," Energies, vol. 14, no. 3, art. 659, 2021. doi:10.3390/en14030659 [Heavy-dust daily losses in desert climates; Dhahran ~20% transmittance loss in 45 days.]
  5. "Quantification of PV Power and Economic Losses Due to Soiling in Qatar," Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 6, art. 3364, 2021. doi:10.3390/su13063364 [43% output loss after 6 months uncleaned; ~12–24%/month in Doha.]
  6. IEA, IRENA, UNSD, World Bank, WHO, Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report 2024. Washington DC: World Bank, 2024. [685 million without electricity; 2.1 billion without clean cooking.]
  7. IRENA, Renewable Capacity Statistics 2025. Abu Dhabi: IRENA, 2025. [Record 452 GW solar added in 2024; renewables reach 4.4 TW, 46% of global capacity.]
  8. "Tilted global solar irradiance in Bahrain: an experimental study," Clean Energy, vol. 8, no. 2, p. 27, 2024. Available: academic.oup.com/ce/article/8/2/27/7617401 [Bahrain GHI ≈ 2,160 kWh/m²/yr; ≈ 6 kWh/m²/day average.]
  9. Electricity & Water Authority (EWA), Kingdom of Bahrain, Electricity Tariffs, 2024. Available: https://www.ewa.bh/en/tariff [Subsidised citizen rate 3 fils/kWh (first 3,000 units); unsubsidised/expatriate 32 fils/kWh.]
  10. A. Al-Karaghouli and L. L. Kazmerski, "Energy consumption and water production cost of conventional and renewable-energy-powered desalination processes," Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews; and recent SWRO reviews, 2013–2024. [SWRO ≈ 3–4 kWh/m³ (state-of-the-art 2.8); thermal MSF/MED ≈ 13–22 kWh/m³.]
  11. Renewable Watch / SEIA, "Water use in solar-panel cleaning," 2020–2022; and Aïssa et al. (Doha). [Arid cleaning ≈ 7–8 L/panel, ≈ 24,000 L per MW per wash; 12–24%/month loss without cleaning.]
  12. IEA, Bahrain — Electricity, country profile, 2024. Available: https://www.iea.org/countries/bahrain/electricity [Power generation almost entirely natural-gas fired.]
NoteWhere a figure is indicative or a literature range, the entry says so. Author-collected values are tagged Measured and the workings are reproduced in the Appendix.
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Figure & table index

  • Figure 1 — The Gulf: abundant sun, constant dust (landing). Home
  • Figure 2 — Bahrain generation mix (gas-dominated). Entry 3
  • Figure 3 — Gas-to-grid system diagram. Entry 3
  • Figure 4 — Solar PV system & the soiling pathway. Entry 4
  • Figure 5 — Two-panel soiling experiment setup. Entry 5
  • Figure 6 — Measured soiling curve, 14-day trial. Entry 5
  • Table 1 — Soiling raw data (14 days). Entry 5
  • Table 2 — Gas vs solar comparison matrix. Entry 6
  • Figure 7 — Energy-justice framework. Entry 7
  • Figure 8 — Pre/post understanding, teaching activity. Entry 8